{ "__type": "IngestedDoc", "__tag": 4010, "_content": {}, "_ordered_sections": [], "item_file": null, "item_line": null, "item_type": null, "aliases": [], "example_section_data": { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [], "title": [], "level": 0, "target": null }, "see_also": [], "signature": null, "references": null, "qa": "user:misc", "arbitrary": [ { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [ { "__type": "Options", "__tag": 4034, "values": [ "orphan" ] } ], "title": [], "level": 0, "target": null }, { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [], "title": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Miscellaneous" } ], "level": 0, "target": null }, { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Special values defined in numpy: nan, inf," } ] }, { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "NaNs can be used as a poor-man's mask (if you don't care what the original value was)" } ] }, { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Note: cannot use equality to test NaNs. E.g.: " } ] }, { "__type": "Code", "__tag": 4050, "value": ">>> myarr = np.array([1., 0., np.nan, 3.])\n>>> np.nonzero(myarr == np.nan)\n(array([], dtype=int64),)\n>>> np.nan == np.nan # is always False! Use special numpy functions instead.\nFalse\n>>> myarr[myarr == np.nan] = 0. # doesn't work\n>>> myarr\narray([ 1., 0., nan, 3.])\n>>> myarr[np.isnan(myarr)] = 0. # use this instead find\n>>> myarr\narray([1., 0., 0., 3.])", "execution_status": null }, { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Other related special value functions: " } ] }, { "__type": "Code", "__tag": 4050, "value": "isinf(): True if value is inf\nisfinite(): True if not nan or inf\nnan_to_num(): Map nan to 0, inf to max float, -inf to min float", "execution_status": null }, { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "The following corresponds to the usual functions except that nans are excluded from the results: " } ] }, { "__type": "Code", "__tag": 4050, "value": "nansum()\nnanmax()\nnanmin()\nnanargmax()\nnanargmin()\n\n>>> x = np.arange(10.)\n>>> x[3] = np.nan\n>>> x.sum()\nnan\n>>> np.nansum(x)\n42.0", "execution_status": null } ], "title": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "IEEE 754 floating point special values" } ], "level": 1, "target": null }, { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "The default is to " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "'warn'" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": " for " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "invalid" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": ", " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "divide" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": ", and " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "overflow" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": " and " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "'ignore'" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": " for " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "underflow" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": ". But this can be changed, and it can be set individually for different kinds of exceptions. The different behaviors are:" } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "'ignore'Take no action when the exception occurs." } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "'warn'Print a " }, { "__type": "InlineRole", "__tag": 4003, "value": "RuntimeWarning", "domain": null, "role": null, "inventory": null }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": " (via the Python " }, { "__type": "CrossRef", "__tag": 4002, "value": "warnings", "reference": { "__type": "RefInfo", "__tag": 4000, "module": "warnings", "version": "*", "kind": "api", "path": "warnings" }, "kind": "module" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": " module)." } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "'raise'Raise a " }, { "__type": "InlineRole", "__tag": 4003, "value": "FloatingPointError", "domain": null, "role": null, "inventory": null }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "." } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "'call'Call a function specified using the " }, { "__type": "InlineRole", "__tag": 4003, "value": "seterrcall", "domain": null, "role": null, "inventory": null }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": " function." } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "'print'Print a warning directly to " }, { "__type": "InlineCode", "__tag": 4051, "value": "stdout" }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "." } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "'log'Record error in a Log object specified by " }, { "__type": "InlineRole", "__tag": 4003, "value": "seterrcall", "domain": null, "role": null, "inventory": null }, { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "." } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "These behaviors can be set for all kinds of errors or specific ones:" } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "allapply to all numeric exceptions" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "invalidwhen NaNs are generated" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "dividedivide by zero (for integers as well!)" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "overflowfloating point overflows" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "underflowfloating point underflows" } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Note that integer divide-by-zero is handled by the same machinery. These behaviors are set on a per-thread basis." } ] } ], "title": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "How numpy handles numerical exceptions" } ], "level": 1, "target": null }, { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [ { "__type": "Code", "__tag": 4050, "value": ">>> oldsettings = np.seterr(all='warn')\n>>> np.zeros(5,dtype=np.float32)/0.\nTraceback (most recent call last):\n...\nRuntimeWarning: invalid value encountered in divide\n>>> j = np.seterr(under='ignore')\n>>> np.array([1.e-100])**10\narray([0.])\n>>> j = np.seterr(invalid='raise')\n>>> np.sqrt(np.array([-1.]))\nTraceback (most recent call last):\n...\nFloatingPointError: invalid value encountered in sqrt\n>>> def errorhandler(errstr, errflag):\n... print(\"saw stupid error!\")\n>>> np.seterrcall(errorhandler)\n>>> j = np.seterr(all='call')\n>>> np.zeros(5, dtype=np.int32)/0\nsaw stupid error!\narray([nan, nan, nan, nan, nan])\n>>> j = np.seterr(**oldsettings) # restore previous\n... # error-handling settings", "execution_status": null } ], "title": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Examples" } ], "level": 1, "target": null }, { "__type": "Section", "__tag": 4015, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Only a survey of the choices. Little detail on how each works." } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": true, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Bare metal, wrap your own C-code manually." } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Plusses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Efficient" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "No dependencies on other tools" } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Minuses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Lots of learning overhead:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "need to learn basics of Python C API" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "need to learn basics of numpy C API" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "need to learn how to handle reference counting and love it." } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Reference counting often difficult to get right." } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "getting it wrong leads to memory leaks, and worse, segfaults" } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": true, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Cython" } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Plusses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "avoid learning C API's" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "no dealing with reference counting" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "can code in pseudo python and generate C code" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "can also interface to existing C code" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "should shield you from changes to Python C api" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "has become the de-facto standard within the scientific Python community" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "fast indexing support for arrays" } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Minuses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Can write code in non-standard form which may become obsolete" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Not as flexible as manual wrapping" } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": true, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "ctypes" } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Plusses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "part of Python standard library" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "good for interfacing to existing shareable libraries, particularly Windows DLLs" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "avoids API/reference counting issues" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "good numpy support: arrays have all these in their ctypes attribute: " } ] }, { "__type": "Code", "__tag": 4050, "value": "a.ctypes.data\na.ctypes.data_as\na.ctypes.shape\na.ctypes.shape_as\na.ctypes.strides\na.ctypes.strides_as", "execution_status": null } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Minuses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "can't use for writing code to be turned into C extensions, only a wrapper tool." } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": true, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "SWIG (automatic wrapper generator)" } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Plusses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "around a long time" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "multiple scripting language support" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "C++ support" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Good for wrapping large (many functions) existing C libraries" } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Minuses:" } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "generates lots of code between Python and the C code" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "can cause performance problems that are nearly impossible to optimize out" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "interface files can be hard to write" } ] } ] }, { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "doesn't necessarily avoid reference counting issues or needing to know API's" } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": true, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", "__tag": 4045, "children": [ { "__type": "Text", "__tag": 4046, "value": "Psyco" } ] } ] } ] }, { "__type": "Blockquote", "__tag": 4059, "children": [ { "__type": "BulletList", "__tag": 4053, "ordered": false, "start": 1, "children": [ { "__type": "ListItem", "__tag": 4054, "children": [ { "__type": "Paragraph", 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